Redox flow battery systems and methods of manufacture and operation and reduction of metallic impurities

ABSTRACT

A redox flow battery system includes an anolyte having a first ionic species in solution; a catholyte having a second ionic species in solution, where the redox flow battery system is configured to reduce the first ionic species in the anolyte and oxidize the second ionic species in the catholyte during charging; a first electrode in contact with the anolyte, where the first electrode includes channels for collection of particles of reduced metallic impurities in the anolyte; a second electrode in contact with the catholyte; and a separator separating the anolyte from the catholyte. A method of reducing metallic impurities in an anolyte of a redox flow battery system includes reducing the metallic impurities in the anolyte; collecting particles of the reduced metallic impurities; and removing the collected particles using a cleaning solution.

RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS

The present patent application is a divisional of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 16/824,073, filed Mar. 19, 2020, which claims thebenefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/849,959,filed May 20, 2019, both of which are incorporated herein by referencein their entirety.

FIELD

The present invention is directed to the area of redox flow batterysystems and methods of making and using redox flow battery systems. Thepresent invention is also directed to iron-chromium (Fe—Cr) redox flowbattery systems and methods of making and using Fe—Cr redox flow batterysystems.

BACKGROUND

The cost of renewable power generation has reduced rapidly in the pastdecade and continues to decrease as more renewable power generationelements, such as solar panels, are deployed. However, renewable powersources, such as solar, hydroelectric, and wind sources, are oftenintermittent and the pattern of user load does not typically coincidewith the intermittent nature of the sources. There is a need for anaffordable and reliable energy storage system to store power generatedby renewable power sources when available and to provide power to userswhen there is insufficient power generation from the renewable powersources.

BRIEF SUMMARY

One embodiment is a redox flow battery system that includes an anolytehaving a first ionic species in solution; a catholyte having a secondionic species in solution, where the redox flow battery system isconfigured to reduce the first ionic species in the anolyte and oxidizethe second ionic species in the catholyte during charging; a firstelectrode in contact with the anolyte, where the first electrodeincludes channels for collection of particles of reduced metallicimpurities in the anolyte; a second electrode in contact with thecatholyte; and a separator separating the anolyte from the catholyte.

In at least some embodiments, the first ionic species includes achromium ionic species. In at least some embodiments, the second ionicspecies includes an iron ionic species. In at least some embodiments,the metallic impurities include at least one of nickel, antimony, zinc,platinum, palladium, gold, or copper.

In at least some embodiments, the redox flow battery system furtherincludes a cleaning solution, where the redox flow battery system isconfigured to flow the cleaning solution over the first electrode toremove the particles of reduced metallic impurities. In at least someembodiments, the cleaning solution is at least a portion of thecatholyte. In at least some embodiments, the cleaning solution includeshydrogen peroxide or ferric chloride.

Another embodiment is a method of reducing metallic impurities in ananolyte of a redox flow battery system. The method includes reducing themetallic impurities in the anolyte; collecting particles of the reducedmetallic impurities; and removing the collected particles using acleaning solution.

In at least some embodiments, collecting the particles includescollecting at least a portion of the particles of the reduced metallicimpurities on an electrode of the redox flow battery system. In at leastsome embodiments, the electrode includes interdigitated openings orindentations for collection of the particles of the reduced metallicimpurities. In at least some embodiments, the metallic impuritiesinclude at least one of nickel, antimony, zinc, platinum, palladium,gold, or copper.

In at least some embodiments, the cleaning solution includes ferricions. In at least some embodiments, the cleaning solution is at least aportion of a catholyte of the redox flow battery system. In at leastsome embodiments, the cleaning solution includes hydrogen peroxide orferric chloride.

In at least some embodiments, removing the collected particles includesremoving the collected particles during a maintenance cycle of the redoxflow battery system. In at least some embodiments, the method furtherincludes performing at least 5 charge and discharge cycles prior toperforming a maintenance cycle.

In at least some embodiments, collecting particles includes collectingat least a portion of the particles of the reduced metallic impuritiesin a particulate filter. In at least some embodiments, the anolyteincludes chromium ions and the catholyte includes iron ions. In at leastsome embodiments, the anolyte further includes iron ions and thecatholyte further includes chromium ions. In at least some embodiments,a utilization of chromium in the anolyte is limited to no more than 80%by an amount of iron in the catholyte.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Non-limiting and non-exhaustive embodiments of the present invention aredescribed with reference to the following drawings. In the drawings,like reference numerals refer to like parts throughout the variousfigures unless otherwise specified.

For a better understanding of the present invention, reference will bemade to the following Detailed Description, which is to be read inassociation with the accompanying drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of one embodiment of a redox flow batterysystem, according to the invention;

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of one embodiment of an electrode for aredox flow battery system, according to the invention;

FIG. 3 is a flowchart of a one embodiment of removing or reducingimpurities in a redox flow battery system, according to the invention;

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of a redox flowbattery system with the catholyte diverted into the second half-cell formaintenance, according to the invention;

FIG. 5A is a schematic diagram of one embodiment of a system thatincludes a redox flow battery system in conjunction with a balancingarrangement, according to the invention;

FIG. 5B is a schematic diagram of one embodiment of the balancingarrangement of the system of FIG. 5A, according to the invention;

FIG. 5C is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of a system thatincludes a redox flow battery system in conjunction with a balancingarrangement, according to the invention;

FIG. 5D is a schematic diagram of one embodiment of the balancingarrangement of the system of FIG. 5C, according to the invention;

FIG. 5E is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of a balancingarrangement, according to the invention;

FIG. 6A is a schematic diagram of electrolyte tanks of a redox flowbattery system with pressure release valves, according to the invention;

FIG. 6B is a schematic diagram of an electrolyte tank of a redox flowbattery system with a liquid-containing U-tube arrangement for pressurerelief, according to the invention;

FIG. 6C is a schematic diagram of electrolyte tanks of a redox flowbattery system with an arrangement for migration of gas between thetanks, according to the invention;

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of a redox flowbattery system with a secondary container, according to the invention;and

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of another embodiment of a redox flowbattery system with a temperature zone, according to the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention is directed to the area of redox flow batterysystems and methods of making and using redox flow battery systems. Thepresent invention is also directed to iron-chromium (Fe—Cr) redox flowbattery systems and methods of making and using Fe—Cr redox flow batterysystems.

Redox flow battery systems are a promising technology for the storage ofenergy generated by renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, andhydroelectric sources, as well as non-renewable and other energysources. As described herein, in at least some embodiments, a redox flowbattery system can have one or more of the following properties: longlife; reusable energy storage; or tunable power and storage capacity.

FIG. 1 illustrates one embodiment of a redox flow battery system 100. Itwill be recognized that other redox flow battery systems 100 may includemore or fewer elements and the elements may be arranged differently thanshown in the illustrated embodiments. It will also be recognized thatthe description below of components, methods, systems, and the like canbe adapted to other redox flow battery systems different from theillustrated embodiments.

The redox flow battery system 100 of FIG. 1 includes two electrodes 102,104 and associated half-cells 106, 108 that are separated by a separator110. The electrodes 102, 104 can be in contact or separated from theseparator. Electrolyte solutions flow through the half-cells 106, 108and are referred to as the anolyte 112 and the catholyte 114. The redoxflow battery system 100 further includes an anolyte tank 116, acatholyte tank 118, an anolyte pump 120, a catholyte pump 122, ananolyte distribution arrangement 124, and a catholyte distributionarrangement 126. The anolyte 112 is stored in the anolyte tank 116 andflows around the anolyte distribution arrangement 124 through, at leastin part, action of the anolyte pump 120 to the half-cell 106. Thecatholyte 114 is stored in the catholyte tank 118 and flows around thecatholyte distribution arrangement 126 through, at least in part, actionof the catholyte pump 122 to the half-cell 108. It will be recognizedthat, although the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 1 includes a singleone of each of the components, other embodiments can include more thanone of any one or more of the illustrated components. For example, otherembodiments can include multiple electrodes 102, multiple electrodes104, multiple anolyte tanks 116, multiple catholyte tanks 118, multiplehalf-cells 112, or multiple half-cells 114, or any combination thereof.

The anolyte and the catholyte are electrolytes and can be the sameelectrolyte or can be different electrolytes. During energy flow into orout of the redox flow battery system 100, the electrolyte in one of thehalf-cells 106, 108 is oxidized and loses electrons and the electrolytein the other one of the half-cells is reduced and gains electrons.

The redox flow battery system 100 can be attached to a load/source130/132, as illustrated in FIG. 1 . In a charge mode, the redox flowbattery system 100 can be charged or recharged by attaching the flowbattery to a source 132. The source 132 can be any power sourceincluding, but not limited to, fossil fuel power sources, nuclear powersources, other batteries or cells, and renewable power sources, such aswind, solar, or hydroelectric power sources. In a discharge mode, theredox flow battery system 100 can provide energy to a load 130. In thecharge mode, the redox flow battery system 100 converts electricalenergy from the source 132 into chemical potential energy. In thedischarge mode, the redox flow battery system 100 converts the chemicalpotential energy back into electrical energy that is provided to theload 130.

The redox flow battery system 100 can also be coupled to a controller128 that can control operation of the redox flow battery system. Forexample, the controller 128 may connect or disconnect the redox flowbattery system 100 from the load 130 or source 132. The controller 128may control operation of the anolyte pump 120 and catholyte pump 122.The controller 128 may control operation of valves associated with theanolyte tank 116, catholyte tank 118, anolyte distribution system 124,catholyte distribution system 126, or half-cells 106, 108. Thecontroller 128 may be used to control general operation of the redoxflow battery system 100 include switching between charge mode, dischargemode, and, optionally, a maintenance mode (or any other suitable modesof system operation.) In at least some embodiments, the controller orthe redox flow battery system may control the temperature of within thehalf-cells or elsewhere in the system. In at least some embodiments, thetemperature of the half-cells (or the system in general or portions ofthe system) is controlled to be no more than 65, 60, 55, or 50 degreesCelsius during operation.

Any suitable controller 128 can be used including, but not limited to,one or more computers, laptop computers, servers, any other computingdevices, or the like or any combination thereof and may includecomponents such as one or more processors, one or more memories, one ormore input devices, one or more display devices, and the like. Thecontroller 128 may be coupled to the redox flow battery system throughany wired or wireless connection or any combination thereof. Thecontroller 128 (or at least a portion of the controller) may be locatedlocal to the redox flow battery system 100 or located, partially orfully, non-locally with respect to the redox flow battery system.

The electrodes 102, 104 can be made of any suitable material including,but not limited to, graphite or other carbon materials (including solid,felt, paper, or cloth electrodes made of graphite or carbon), gold,titanium, lead, or the like. The two electrodes 102, 104 can be made ofthe same or different materials. In at least some embodiments, the redoxflow battery system 100 does not include any homogenous or metalliccatalysts for the redox reaction in the anolyte or catholyte or both.This may limit the type of material that may be used for the electrodes.

The separator 110 separates the two half-cells 106, 108. In at leastsome embodiments, the separator 110 allows the transport of selectedions (for example, H⁺, Cl⁻, or iron or chromium ions or any combinationthereof) during the charging or discharging of the redox flow batterysystem 100. In some embodiments, the separator 110 is a microporousmembrane. Any suitable separator 110 can be used and examples ofsuitable separator include, but are not limited to, ion transfermembranes, anionic transfer membranes, cationic transfer membranes,microporous separators, or the like or any combination thereof.

Redox flow battery systems can be safe, reliable, and provide a reusableenergy storage medium. It has been challenging, however, to identify aredox flow battery system that has a desirable storage energy with along life (e.g., a flow battery system that maintains its storagecapacity for many charge/discharge cycles), and is made of materialsthat have abundant availability (e.g., materials that are abundant onEarth and are commercially mined and available in relatively largequantities). Current lithium and vanadium batteries utilize materialsthat have limited availability. The storage capacity of manyconventional battery systems also degrades when subjected 10, 50, or 100charge/discharge cycles or more. A further challenge for aqueous redoxflow battery systems is to manage or avoid the evolution of hydrogen oroxygen from water.

As described herein, a suitable and useful redox flow battery system isan iron-chromium (Fe—Cr) redox flow battery system utilizing Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺and Cr³⁺/Cr²⁺ redox chemistry. Iron and chromium are generally readilycommercially available and, at least in some embodiments, the storagecapacity of a Fe—Cr redox flow battery system does not degrade by morethan 10% or 20% over at least 100, 200, 250, or 500 charge/dischargecycles or can be configured, using maintenance procedures, to maintainat least 70%, 80%, or 90% storage capacity over at least 100, 200, 250,or 500 charge/discharge cycles.

In at least some embodiments, the electrolytes (i.e., the catholyte oranolyte) of a Fe—Cr redox flow battery system include an iron-containingcompound or a chromium-containing compound (or both) dissolved in asolvent. In some embodiments, the anolyte and catholyte contain both theiron-containing compound and the chromium-containing compound. Theconcentrations of these two compounds in the anolyte and catholyte canbe the same or different. In other embodiments, the catholyte includesonly the iron-containing compound and the anolyte includes only thechromium-containing compound.

The iron-containing compound can be, for example, iron chloride, ironsulfate, iron bromide, or the like or any combination thereof. Thechromium-containing compound can be, for example, chromium chloride,chromium sulfate, chromium bromide, or the like or any combinationthereof. The solvent can be water; an aqueous acid, such as,hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, or the like. In atleast some embodiments, both the catholyte and the anolyte of an Fe—Crredox flow battery system includes iron chloride and chromium chloridedissolved in hydrochloric acid. In at least some embodiments, thecatholyte of an Fe—Cr redox flow battery system includes iron chloridedissolved in hydrochloric acid and the anolyte includes chromiumchloride dissolved in hydrochloric acid.

In at least some instances, it has been found that chloride-complexedchromium ions (for example, Cr(H₂O)₅Cl^(2+/+)) have faster reactionkinetics and lower H₂ production than at least some other chromium ioncomplexes (for example, Cr(H₂O)₆ ^(3+/2+)). Accordingly, the inclusionof chloride in the anolyte (for example, from the chromium-containingcompound, the solvent, or both) can be beneficial.

In at least some embodiments, the molarity of iron in the catholyte orthe anolyte or both is in a range of 0.5 to 2. In at least someembodiments, the molarity of chromium in the anolyte or the catholyte orboth is in a range of 0.5 to 2. In at least some embodiments, themolarity of the hydrochloric acid or other aqueous acid or base is in arange of 0.5 to 4.

One challenge of previous Fe—Cr redox flow batteries is the generationor evolution of hydrogen (H₂) at the negative electrode as a result ofthe redox reactions. In at least some instances, increasing theutilization of the chromium in the redox flow battery can increase theproduction of hydrogen. It is often desirable to limit or reduce theproduction of hydrogen in the redox flow battery.

It has been found that limiting the utilization of chromium results inlower hydrogen generation while retaining adequate energy density in theredox flow battery system. In at least some embodiments, the chromiumutilization in the anolyte of the redox flow battery system is limitedto no more than 80%, 70%, or 60% or less. In at least some embodiments,the chromium utilization in the anolyte is limited by amount of iron inthe catholyte or is limited by 100% utilization of the iron in thecatholyte.

Chromium utilization can be managed, at least in part, by managing therelative amounts of chromium and iron in the redox flow battery system.The term “molar ratio” as used herein means the ratio of the molaramount of one component with respect to the molar amount of a secondcomponent. In at least some embodiments, the molar ratio of chromium inthe anolyte to iron in the catholyte (Cr(anolyte)/Fe(catholyte)) is not1, but, instead, the Cr(anolyte)/Fe(catholyte) molar ratio is at least1.25 or more (for example, at least 1.43, 1.67, or more). In at leastsome embodiments, the molar amount of iron in the catholyte is no morethan 80%, 70%, or 60% or less of the molar amount of chromium in theanolyte. In at least some embodiments, the smaller amount of availableiron limits the utilization of the available chromium to no more than80%, 70%, or 60%. In at least some embodiments, the anolyte and thecatholyte are both mixed iron/chromium solutions.

In at least some embodiments, the concentration of iron in the catholyteis different from the concentration of chromium in the anolyte toproduce the desired molar ratio. In at least some embodiments, theconcentration of iron in the catholyte is no more than 80%, 70%, or 60%or less of the concentration of chromium in the anolyte.

In at least some embodiments, the concentration of iron in the catholyteand the concentration of chromium in the anolyte is the same. In suchembodiments, the molar ratio of chromium and iron in the anolyte andcatholyte, respectively, can be selected by selection of the volumes ofthe anolyte and catholyte. In at least some embodiments, the volumeratio of anolyte to catholyte is at least 1.25:1 or more (for example,at least 1.43:1 or 1.67:1 or more) leading to a molar ratio that isequal to the volume ratio when the concentrations of chromium in theanolyte and iron in the catholyte are the same. In at least someembodiments, the volume of the catholyte is no more than 80%, 70%, or60% of the volume of the anolyte.

In some embodiments, the volumes of the anolyte and the catholyte can bebased on the volume of the respective half-cells 106, 108. In someembodiments, the volumes of the anolyte and the catholyte can be basedon the volume of the respective catholyte and anolyte portions of theredox flow battery system 100. For example, the catholyte portion caninclude the half-cell 108, the catholyte tank 118, and the catholytedistribution arrangement 126. The anolyte portion can include thehalf-cell 106, the anolyte tank 116, and the anolyte distributionarrangement 124.

It will be recognized that a combination of both different iron andchromium concentrations and different catholyte and anolyte volumes canbe used to achieve the desired molar ratio of chromium in the anolyteand iron in the catholyte. In at least some of these embodiments, thevolume of the catholyte is no more than 95%, 90%, 80%, 70%, or 60% ofthe volume of the anolyte.

In at least some instances, it is found that higher H⁺ concentration inthe anolyte promotes hydrogen generation. To reduce hydrogen generationby the anolyte, the H⁺ concentration in the initial anolyte can be lowerthan the H⁺ concentration in the initial catholyte. In at least someembodiments, the H⁺ concentration in the initial anolyte is at least 10,20, 25, or 50 percent lower than the H⁺ concentration in the initialcatholyte.

Table 1 illustrates a 1:1 volume ratio of anolyte to catholyte atdifferent states of charge (SOC) where the state of charge representsthe percentage conversion of the initial active ionic species in theanolyte and catholyte to the reduced/oxidized ionic species. It will berecognized that the concentration of H⁺ changes to maintain chargebalance between the anolyte and catholyte. In Table 1, the initialanolyte is 1.25M Fe²⁺, 1.25M Cr³⁺, and 1.25M H⁺ and the initialcatholyte is 1.25M Fe²⁺, 1.25M Cr³⁺, and 2.5M H⁺. These particularconcentrations are selected so that the H⁺ concentration is equal at the50% state of charge.

TABLE 1 State of Anolyte Catholyte Charge Cr²⁺ Cr³⁺ H⁺ Fe²⁺ Fe³⁺ H⁺   00      1.25   1.25   1.25   0      2.5     25 0.3125 0.9375 1.56250.9375 0.3124 2.1875  50 0.625  0.625  1.875  0.625  0.625  1.875   750.9375 0.3125 2.1875 0.3125 0.9375 1.5625 100 1.25   0      2.5    0    1.25   1.25  

Table 2 illustrates a 2:1 volume ratio of anolyte to catholyte atdifferent states of charge (SOC). In Table 2, the initial anolyte is1.25M Fe²⁺, 1.25M Cr³⁺, and 1.5625M H⁺ and the initial catholyte is1.25M Fe²⁺, 1.25M Cr³⁺, and 2.5M H⁺. These particular concentrations areselected so that the H⁺ concentration is equal when the anolyte is at25% SOC and the catholyte is at 50% SOC. The difference in SOC betweenthe anolyte and catholyte arises due to anolyte having twice the volumeof the catholyte.

TABLE 2 State of Anolyte Catholyte Charge Cr²⁺ Cr³⁺ H⁺ Fe²⁺ Fe³⁺ H⁺   00      1.25   1.5625 1.25   0      2.5     25 0.3125 0.9375 1.875 0.9375 0.3124 2.1875  50 0.625  0.625  2.1875 0.625  0.625  1.875   750.3125 0.9375 1.5625 100 0      1.25   1.25  

Another challenge with Fe—Cr redox flow battery systems, as well asother redox flow battery systems, is the presence of metal impurities,such as nickel, antimony, and copper. In at least some instances, thesemetal impurities can increase hydrogen generation on the negativeelectrode surface. Such metallic impurities can be present as a naturalimpurity or as a part of the refining or manufacturing of the iron andchromium compounds or other portions of the redox flow battery system orthrough any other mechanism.

In at least some embodiments, the redox flow battery system 100 can beconfigured to remove, or reduce the level of, these impurities. Asillustrated in FIG. 3 , in at least some embodiments, to remove, orreduce the level of, these impurities, the redox flow battery system 100is configured to electrochemically reduce at least some of theimpurities to metal form (step 350), collect the resulting metallicparticles using a particulate filter or other arrangement such at theinterdigitated electrode described below (step 352), and remove theseimpurities using a cleaning solution containing an oxidizing species(step 354).

In at least some embodiments, the impurities are reduced within theanolyte as part of the redox reactions. The impurities form metallicparticles or particulates when reduced during charging. The redox flowbattery system 100 may include a particulate filter in the half-cell 106or elsewhere to capture the metallic particles or particulates. In someembodiments, the negative electrode 102 may aid in filtering themetallic particles or particulates. To also facilitate the removal ofthe impurities, the negative electrode 102 can have an interdigitatedstructure, as illustrated in FIG. 2 . The interdigitated structureincludes empty or indented channels 240 for collection of particles ofthe metallic impurities during operation of the redox flow batterysystem 100. These particles can then be removed from the electrodeduring a maintenance cycle, as described below.

In at least some embodiments, the Fe—Cr redox flow battery systemsdescribed herein are arranged to remove these impurities using asolution with an oxidizing species, such as Fe³⁺. As part of themaintenance of the redox flow battery system 100, during a maintenancecycle, a Fe³⁺ (or other oxidizing) solution can be flowed through theanolyte portion of the system to remove the impurities from theelectrode 102 or elsewhere in the system. In at least some embodiments,the Fe³⁺ solution can be the catholyte or a portion of the catholyte.Alternative oxidizing solutions include, but are not limited to,hydrogen peroxide solutions, ferric chloride solutions, nitric acid, orthe like.

In at least some embodiments, the removal or reduction of metallicimpurities is performed during manufacturing of the redox flow batterysystem, prior to the onset of operation of the redox flow batterysystem, or during operation of the redox flow battery system, or anycombination thereof. It will be understood that these methods andsystems for removal of metallic impurities are not limited to Fe—Crredox flow battery systems, but can also be utilized in other redox flowbattery systems such as vanadium, vanadium-bromine, vanadium-iron,zinc-bromine, and organic redox flow battery systems.

It has also been found that, in at least some embodiments, occasionalexposure of the electrode 102 to the catholyte 114 can facilitatepassivation of the surface of the electrode 102 and reduce hydrogengeneration. As an example, in one Fe—Cr redox flow battery system theelectrode 102 was treated with the catholyte 114 for 1 hour after 17charge/discharge cycles and the hydrogen generation rate when down from38.9 ml/min to 10.2 ml/min. In at least some embodiments, operation ofthe redox flow battery system can periodically (or when initiated orrequested by an operator) include a maintenance period in which thehalf-cell 106 or electrode 102 is exposed to the catholyte (or anelectrolyte that has components such as those specified above for thecatholyte) for a period of time (for example, 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, 60minutes or more.) The catholyte may be introduced to the half-cell 106or electrode 102 once, periodically, intermittently, or continuouslyduring the maintenance period. In at least some of these embodiments,the catholyte 114 can be returned to the catholyte tank 118 after themaintenance period. In at least some embodiments, the maintenance periodmay be performed when the state of charge of the anolyte is at least50%, 75% or 90%.

FIG. 4 illustrates one embodiment of a redox flow battery system thatincludes switches 434 for disconnecting the anolyte distribution system124 from the half cell 106 and connecting the catholyte distributionsystem 126 to the half-cell 106 to flow catholyte 114 into the half-cell106. Such an arrangement can be used to reduce or remove metallicimpurities or to passivate the electrode 102 or any combination thereof.The pump 122 can be used to flow catholyte 114 into the half-cell 106 orto remove the catholyte 114 from the half-cell 106 when the maintenanceis complete.

A Fe—Cr redox flow battery system can have a reduction in storagecapacity over time arising, at least in part, from the low standardpotential of the Cr²⁺/Cr³⁺ pair which results in at least some level ofhydrogen generation on the anolyte side of the system. As a result theAverage Oxidation State (AOS) of the active species in the systemincreases and the system can become unbalanced and the storage capacitydecrease. It is useful, therefore, to have methods or arrangements forat least partially restoring the storage capacity by recovering the AOS.

In at least some embodiments, the AOS for a Fe—Cr redox flow batterysystem can be described as: AOS=((Moles of Fe³⁺ in catholyte andanolyte)*3+(Moles of Fe³⁺ in catholyte and anolyte)*2+(Moles of Cr³⁺ inanolyte and catholyte)*3+(Moles of Cr²⁺ in anolyte andcatholyte)*2)/(Moles of Fe in catholyte and anolyte+Moles of Cr inanolyte and catholyte).

To rebalance the redox flow battery system, in at least someembodiments, the redox flow battery system includes a balancearrangement, in conjunction with either the anolyte or catholyte, torebalance the system and restore storage capacity. In at least someembodiments, the balance arrangement utilizes a vanadium source (toproduce oxovanadium (VO²⁺) and dioxovanadium (VO₂ ⁺) ionic species) anda reductant, such as an oxidizable hydrocarbon compound, to rebalancethe system and restore storage capacity. The following embodimentsillustrate the addition of a balance arrangement to a Fe—Cr redox flowbattery system. It will be understood that such balance arrangements canbe used with other redox flow battery systems, or other chemical and/orelectrochemical systems.

FIG. 5A illustrates one embodiment of portions of the redox flow batterysystem 100 and a balance arrangement 500. FIG. 5B illustrates oneembodiment of the balance arrangement 500. In this embodiment, thecatholyte 114 is used in conjunction with a balancing electrolyte 562(for example, an electrolyte containing VO²⁺/VO₂ ⁺) and a reductant 563to rebalance the redox flow battery system 100. The balance arrangement500 includes the catholyte tank 118; balance electrodes 552, 554;balance half-cells 556, 558; balance separator 560; catholyte balancepump 572; catholyte balance distribution system 576; balance tank 566;reductant tank 567; balance electrolyte pump 570; balance electrolytedistribution arrangement 574; and potential source 561.

The following reaction equations illustrate one example of therebalancing of the system using the iron-based catholyte 114, abalancing electrolyte 562 containing oxovanadium ions, and a reductant563 containing fructose, along with the application of an externalpotential from the potential source 561 of at least 0.23 V:VO²⁺+H₂O+Fe³⁺→VO₂ ⁺+Fe²⁺+2H⁺24VO₂ ⁺+24H⁺+C₆H₁₂O₆→24VO²⁺+6CO₂+18H₂OVia these reactions, the AOS of the redox flow battery system 100 can bereduced and the H⁺ ions lost in hydrogen generation restored. In atleast some embodiments, this rebalancing (or restoring of the AOS orstorage capacity recovery) does not utilize any metallic catalyst assuch catalysts often increase hydrogen generation. In at least someembodiments, VO²⁺ of the balance electrolyte 562 can be considered ahomogeneous catalyst as the VO²⁺ ions are regenerated using thereductant 563. In at least some embodiments, the reduction of VO²⁺ ionshappens in balance half cell 566.

In at least some embodiments, the oxidation of the reductant 563 can beperformed in the balance tank 566 instead of the half-cell 556 and maynot require the application of an external potential, as long as VO²⁺ions are available. Suitable reducing agents include sugars (forexample, fructose, glucose, sucrose, or the like or any combinationthereof), carboxylic acids (for example, formic acid, acetic acid,propionic acid, oxalic acid, or the like or any combination thereof),aldehydes (for example, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, or the like or anycombination thereof), alcohols (for example, methanol, ethanol,propanol, or the like or any combination thereof), other hydrocarbons,or hydrogen gas. In at least some embodiments, the reductant is solubleor at least partially soluble in water.

In at least some embodiments, the reductant 563 is added eitherperiodically, intermittently, or continuously to the balance electrolyte562 from the reductant tank 567. In at least some embodiments, thisrebalancing process (for recovering the storage capacity or restoringthe AOC) occurs continuously, intermittently, or periodically. Forexample, the catholyte balance pump 572 and balance electrolyte pump 570can operate continuously, intermittently, or periodically. In at leastsome embodiments, the catholyte pump 122 can also be used as thecatholyte balance pump 572. Moreover, the catholyte balance distributionarrangement 576 may include a valve to couple to, or disconnect from,the catholyte tank 118.

FIGS. 5C and 5D illustrate another embodiment of redox flow batterysystem 100 with a balance arrangement 500′ which operates with theanolyte 112 (and corresponding anolyte pump 572′ and anolyte balancedistribution arrangement 576′) instead of the catholyte. In at leastsome embodiments, the anolyte pump 120 can also be used as the anolytebalance pump 572′.

The following reaction equations illustrate one example of therebalancing of the system using the chromium-based anolyte 112, abalancing electrolyte 562 containing oxovanadium ions, and a reductant563 containing fructose, along with the application of an externalpotential from the potential source 561 of at least 1.40 V:VO²⁺+H₂O+Cr³⁺→VO₂ ⁺+Cr²⁺+2H⁺24VO₂ ⁺+24H⁺+C₆H₁₂O₆→24VO²⁺+6CO₂+18H₂O

FIG. 5E illustrates another embodiment of a balance arrangement 500″which can be adapted to operate with either the catholyte or anolyte andthe corresponding catholyte/anolyte tank 118/116 that is coupled to theremainder of the redox flow battery system 100. This embodimentincorporates an intermediate tank 584 and two intermediate half-cells586, 588 between the catholyte/anolyte tank 118/116 and the balance tank562 and corresponding half-cells 556/558. (As with the balance tank,there can be an intermediate pump and intermediate distributionarrangement, as well as an intermediate separator between the twohalf-cells 586, 588 and a source potential to apply a potential betweenthe electrodes of the two half-cells 586, 588.) In one embodiment, theintermediate electrolyte in the intermediate tank 584 contains V²⁺/V³⁺ions.

The following reaction equations illustrate one example of therebalancing of the system using balance arrangement 500″ and thecatholyte 114 of redox flow battery system 100 (FIG. 1 ).VO²⁺+H₂O−e ⁻→VO₂ ⁺+2H⁺(half-cell 556)V³⁺ +e ⁻→V²⁺(half-cell 558)V²⁺ −e ⁻→V³⁺(half-cell 586)Fe³⁺ +e ⁻→Fe³⁺(half-cell 588)24VO₂ ⁺+24H⁺+C₆H₁₂O₆→24VO²⁺+6CO₂+18H₂O (balance tank 562 or half cell556 or both)

Another embodiment uses the anolyte (Cr²⁺/Cr³⁺) instead of the catholytein conjunction with the intermediate electrolyte and balanceelectrolyte. Yet another embodiment uses the anolyte and replaces theV²⁺/V³⁺ intermediate electrolyte with a Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ intermediateelectrolyte.

It will be recognized that the balance arrangement described herein canbe utilized with other redox flow battery systems and, in particular,those that are capable of generating hydrogen gas. Examples of suchredox flow battery system include, but are not limited to, Zn—Br orZn—Cl redox flow battery systems, vanadium-based (for example, allvanadium, V—Br, V—Cl, or V-polyhalide) redox flow battery systems; Fe—Vor other iron-based redox flow battery systems (for example, an all ironredox flow battery system); or organic redox flow battery systems.

In some embodiments, during Fe²⁺-overcharging conditions, chlorine gas(Cl₂) can be generated on the catholyte side of the redox flow batterysystem 100. The chlorine may be confined in the catholyte headspace of,for example, the catholyte tank 118 or half-cell 108 or the like or anycombination thereof. Continued generation of chlorine gas increases thepressure in the confined catholyte headspace. In at least someembodiments, this may result in the chlorine gas migrating to theanolyte headspace via a connection 638 c (FIG. 6C) which optionallyincludes one or more valves or switches 639 to control flow. In at leastsome embodiments, at least a portion of the chlorine gas may be absorbedby the anolyte solution. In at least some embodiments, the followingreactions can occur between chlorine and the anolyte solution tochemically discharge the over-charged system:2Cr²⁺+Cl₂→2Cr³⁺+2Cl⁻2Fe²⁺+Cl₂→2Fe³⁺+2Cl⁻

In at least some embodiments, the redox flow battery system 100 mayinclude a pressure release system to manage pressure in the catholyte oranolyte headspace. For example, a pressure relief valve 638 a (FIG. 6A)or a liquid-containing U-tube arrangement 638 b (FIG. 6B) may be coupledto the catholyte headspace to manage the pressure. Similarly, a pressurerelief valve or a liquid-containing U-tube arrangement may be coupled tothe anolyte headspace. In at least some embodiments, gas in the anolyteor catholyte headspace may exchange with an environmental atmosphere viaa bi-directional gas pressure control system such as the U-tubearrangement. In at least some embodiments, a U-tube arrangement may alsobe used as a gas leak monitor. In at least some embodiments, the liquidin a U-tube arrangement may contain an acid level indicator that can beused to estimate the amount of acid-containing gas released into theenvironment by the redox flow battery system.

In at least some instances, the acidic solutions and chemical vapor fromleaks of the electrolytes and chemical products of the redox reactionscan damage electronic devices (for example, the controller 128,switches, valves, pumps, sensors, or the like) in the redox flow batterysystem 100. In addition, the leaks may result in environmental damage orcontamination.

In at least some embodiments, all or a portion of the redox flow batterysystem 100 that contains the anolyte or catholyte or both can besituated in a secondary container 790 (FIG. 7 ) that contains acidabsorbent material, such as sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate,calcium carbonate, or calcium oxide or the like. In at least someembodiments, the secondary container can contain sufficient acidabsorbent material to neutralize at least 10, 25, 40, 50, 60, 70, 75, 90percent or more of the anolyte or catholyte or both.

In some embodiments, the anolyte and catholyte containing components,such as the anolyte or catholyte tanks 116, 118, half-cells 106, 108, atleast some portions of the anolyte or catholyte distribution systems124, 126, electrodes 102, 104, or the like, of the redox flow batterysystem 100 are maintained at a temperature of at least 50, 60, 70, or 80degrees Celsius or more during charge or discharge periods in atemperature zone 892, as illustrated in FIG. 8 . The temperature ofthese components may be maintained using one or more heating devices894. In addition, one or more of electronic components of the redox flowbattery system, such as one or more of the controller 128, the pumps120, 122, one or more sensors, one or more valves, or the like, aremaintained at a temperature of no more than 40, 35, 30, 25, or 20degrees Celsius or less. The temperature of these components may bemaintained using one or more cooling devices 896.

The above specification provides a description of the manufacture anduse of the invention. Since many embodiments of the invention can bemade without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, theinvention also resides in the claims hereinafter appended.

What is claimed as new and desired to be protected by Letters Patent ofthe United States is:
 1. A redox flow battery system, comprising ananolyte comprising a first ionic species in solution; a catholytecomprising a second ionic species in solution, wherein the redox flowbattery system is configured to reduce the first ionic species in theanolyte and oxidize the second ionic species in the catholyte duringcharging; a first electrode in contact with the anolyte, wherein thefirst electrode comprises a plurality of channels for collection ofparticles of reduced metallic impurities in the anolyte; a secondelectrode in contact with the catholyte; a separator separating theanolyte from the catholyte; and a cleaning solution, wherein the redoxflow battery system is configured to flow the cleaning solution over thefirst electrode to remove the particles of reduced metallic impurities.2. The redox flow battery system of claim 1, wherein the first ionicspecies comprises a chromium ionic species.
 3. The redox flow batterysystem of claim 1, wherein the second ionic species comprises an ironionic species.
 4. The redox flow battery system of claim 1, wherein thereduced metallic impurities comprise at least one of nickel, antimony,zinc, platinum, palladium, gold, or copper.
 5. The redox flow batterysystem of claim 1, wherein the cleaning solution is at least a portionof the catholyte.
 6. The redox flow battery system of claim 1, whereinthe cleaning solution comprises hydrogen peroxide or ferric chloride. 7.The redox flow battery system of claim 1, wherein the cleaning solutioncomprises ferric ions.
 8. The redox flow battery system of claim 1,wherein the cleaning solution comprises nitric acid.
 9. The redox flowbattery system of claim 1, wherein the cleaning solution comprises anoxidizing species.
 10. The redox flow battery system of claim 1, whereinthe channels of the first electrode comprise interdigitated openings orindentations for collection of the particles of the reduced metallicimpurities.
 11. The redox flow battery system of claim 1, wherein theredox flow battery system is configured to remove the collectedparticles of the reduced metallic impurities during a maintenance cycleof the redox flow battery system.
 12. The redox flow battery system ofclaim 11, wherein the redox flow battery system is configured to performat least 5 charge and discharge cycles prior to performing themaintenance cycle.
 13. A redox flow battery system, comprising ananolyte comprising a first ionic species in solution; a catholytecomprising a second ionic species in solution, wherein the redox flowbattery system is configured to reduce the first ionic species in theanolyte and oxidize the second ionic species in the catholyte duringcharging; a first electrode in contact with the anolyte, wherein thefirst electrode comprises a plurality of channels for collection ofparticles of reduced metallic impurities in the anolyte; a secondelectrode in contact with the catholyte; a separator separating theanolyte from the catholyte; wherein the redox flow battery system isconfigured to remove the collected particles of the reduced metallicimpurities during a maintenance cycle of the redox flow battery system;and wherein the redox flow battery system is configured to flow at leasta portion of the catholyte over the first electrode during themaintenance cycle.
 14. The redox flow battery system of claim 1, furthercomprising a particulate filter for collecting at least a portion of theparticles of the reduced metallic impurities.
 15. The redox flow batterysystem of claim 2, wherein the second ionic species comprises an ironionic species.
 16. The redox flow battery system of claim 15, wherein amolar ratio of chromium in the anolyte to iron in the catholyte is atleast 1.25.
 17. The redox flow battery system of claim 16, wherein theredox flow battery system, at a state of charge of 0%, has a molarity ofH⁺ in the anolyte that is at least 10% less than a molarity of H⁺ in thecatholyte.
 18. The redox flow battery system of claim 15, wherein theanolyte further comprises an iron ionic species in the solution and thecatholyte further comprises a chromium ionic species in the solution.19. The redox flow battery system of claim 1, wherein a volume of theanolyte is at least 1.25 times a volume of the catholyte.